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Until very recent times, most Jewish musical traditions weretransmitted by purely oral means. Very rarely was any kind of musical notation used; most singers of Jewish religious and secular music could not even read musical notes. One learned the traditions by hearing them and repeating them, but because the music was not written down, it did not remain rigidly fixed. A singer could give his or her own variation of a familiar melody. New melodies were invented or borrowed from non-Jewish cultures all the time. The repertoire of Jewish music changed over the centuries, with old and new musical styles being blended to gether. A religious service might include melodies composed in the present century along with melodies hundreds of years old.

What Is Jewish Music?
The definition of Jewish music is itself a much debated question. Is any music written by a Jew Jewish music? Is only synagogue music Jewish? What makes Jewish music distinctive? If Hasidim borrowed a Ukrainian shepherd's tune and set religious words to it, does that make the melody Jewish? Does the fact that the opening bars of the Ashkenazic melody for the Chanukah hymn "Ma'oz Zur" ("Rock of Ages") are identical to the opening bars of Martin Luther's "Nun freut euch lieben Christeng' mein" ("Rejoice 0 dear Christian Community") invalidate "Ma'oz Zur" as a Jewish melody (Illustration 8. 1)?

We know that much Jewish folk music, whether secular or religious, is borrowed from, or at least influenced by, the musical traditions of the people among whom the Jews lived. Does that mean that Hasidic music is purely Slavic and Yemenite music is purely Arabic? Or is there some common element found in all Jewish music, some common ancestor from which the various regional traditions descend? These questions are ideologically laden ones fraught with emotional implications. If Jewish music is merely borrowed from non-Jewish cultures, does that mean that this aspect of Jewish culture is merely derivative and not creative? Or is it a tribute to the ability of Jews to adapt to various cultures and make them their own? Does Jewish music have to go back to an ancient tradition in the Holy Land in order to be authentic, or is it just as authentic if it was invented in the various medieval diasporas?

One of the pioneers of the comparative study of Jewish music, A. Z. Idelsohn, a strong Zionist, was firmly convinced that the Jewish traditions in such widely separated places as Yemen, Germany, Morocco, and Poland had common roots. For him, authentic Jewish music was " Semitic-Oriental" song, and the later additions, such as German influences on the Ashkenazic tradition, were dilutions of the au,thentic tradition. Later scholars tended to be more skeptical about the common roots of all Jewish music, although they too sometimes found points of similarity.

The definition of Jewish music we use includes both liturgical and secular music. The discussion of Jewish secular music will be limited to music that is either in a Jewish vernacular language, used for a specifically Jewish occasion (for instance, wedding music), or has a specifically Jewish theme. Only music of the Jewish folk tradition will be included, excluding music by well-known Jewish composers of the modern period.

Anyone who listens to a cross-section of Jewish music from around the world is first struck by the dissimilatity of the various traditions. Any characteristic one might use to describe the music of one particular geographic branch of Jewish music-for instance, the plaintive minor tone of East European Jewish musicdoes not exist in Jewish music in other parts of the world. The dissimilarity is greatest in the nonliturgical music. Jewish folk songs in the vernacular and Jewish wedding dance tunes rarely share the same words, melodies, rhythms, or any other characteristics. The music of the religious service is the most likely to contain common elements, if indeed there are any such elements to be found.

Listen to examples

Ashkenaz Tzur Mishelo sung by Cantor Gadi Elon RealAudio	Sephardi Los Bilbilicos sung by Yoram Gaom Real Audio / QuickTime Taken from the disc Romantic Ballads from the Great Judeo-Espagnol Heritage Read lyrics
Simkhes Toyre Time Performed by the Klezmatics and Itzhak Perlman from the disc In the Fiddler's House RealAudio / QuickTime About this song and lyrics	Cuando El Rey Nimrod sung by Yoram Gaom Real Audio / QuickTime Taken from the disc Romantic Ballads from the Great Judeo-Espagnol Heritage Read lyrics